Glossary of Terms¶
This glossary defines key terms used in teaching reading to kindergarten students. Definitions follow ISO 11179 standards for clarity and precision.
Accuracy Check¶
A quick assessment to verify whether a student correctly identifies letters, sounds, or words.
Example: After a student reads "cat," the teacher checks if each sound was pronounced correctly.
Alphabet¶
The complete set of 26 letters used in written English, arranged in a standard order from A to Z.
The alphabet is the foundation of all reading instruction. Children learn letter names before learning the sounds each letter represents.
Example: Singing the ABC song helps children memorize the alphabet in order.
Assessment¶
A method for measuring what a student has learned or can do with specific skills.
In kindergarten reading, assessments are typically informal observations rather than formal tests. Teachers watch for correct letter identification, sound production, and word reading.
Example: A teacher shows flashcards of letters and notes which ones the student recognizes.
Automaticity¶
The ability to recognize letters, sounds, or words instantly without conscious effort.
When reading becomes automatic, students can focus their mental energy on understanding meaning rather than decoding individual words.
Example: A student who sees "the" and immediately says the word has achieved automaticity with that sight word.
Blending CVC Words¶
The skill of combining three sounds (consonant-vowel-consonant) to read a complete word.
CVC words are the first real words most beginning readers learn to decode. Mastering this pattern opens up hundreds of simple words.
Example: Blending /c/ + /a/ + /t/ together to say "cat."
Blending VC Words¶
The skill of combining two sounds (vowel-consonant) to read simple word patterns.
VC words are simpler than CVC words and serve as a stepping stone to more complex blending.
Example: Blending /a/ + /t/ together to say "at."
Book Handling¶
The physical skills needed to hold and use a book correctly, including how to turn pages and orient the book right-side up.
Proper book handling is a prerequisite for reading instruction. Children need to know which way is up before they can focus on the words.
Example: A child holds a picture book with the cover facing up and turns pages from right to left.
Connected Sounds¶
Sounds that flow together smoothly when blending, without pauses between them.
This technique prevents the choppy reading that occurs when sounds are said separately with stops between them.
Example: Saying "mmmaaat" as one flowing sound rather than "m...a...t" with pauses.
Consonant¶
A letter of the alphabet that is not a vowel (all letters except A, E, I, O, U).
There are 21 consonants in the English alphabet. Each consonant typically represents one or more specific sounds.
Example: The letters B, C, D, F, and G are all consonants.
Consonant Sound¶
The speech sound produced when airflow is partially or completely blocked by the tongue, teeth, or lips.
Consonant sounds differ from vowel sounds because something in the mouth interrupts the air as it flows out.
Example: The /b/ sound is made by pressing the lips together and then releasing them.
Consonant-Sound Match¶
The ability to connect a consonant letter with its most common sound.
This skill is essential for decoding words. Students must reliably associate each consonant letter with the sound it typically makes.
Example: Knowing that the letter M makes the /m/ sound as in "mom."
Continuous Blending¶
A technique where sounds are stretched and connected without stopping between them.
This approach helps students hear how sounds combine into words more naturally than segmented blending.
Example: Stretching "sssaaammm" continuously rather than saying "s-a-m" with stops.
CVC Word Pattern¶
A word structure consisting of one consonant, one vowel, and one consonant in sequence.
CVC words are the foundation of early reading because they follow predictable sound patterns and include many common words.
Example: "cat," "dog," "sit," and "run" are all CVC words.
Decoding¶
The process of using letter-sound knowledge to figure out how to pronounce an unfamiliar written word.
Decoding is the core mechanical skill of reading. Students use what they know about letters and sounds to "unlock" new words.
Example: A student sees "pig" for the first time and sounds out /p/ + /i/ + /g/ to read it.
Emergent Reader¶
A beginning reader who is developing foundational literacy skills but is not yet reading independently.
Emergent readers are learning how print works, recognizing letters, and starting to connect sounds to symbols.
Example: A kindergartner who knows most letter names and is learning to blend simple words.
Error Detection¶
The ability to notice when a mistake has been made during reading or letter identification.
This skill develops alongside reading accuracy and is important for self-correction.
Example: A student reads "cat" as "cap" and then pauses, realizing something sounds wrong.
Final Sound¶
The last phoneme heard when a word is spoken aloud.
Identifying final sounds is harder than initial sounds because the ending comes after other sounds that may distract attention.
Example: The final sound in "dog" is /g/.
Final Sound Change¶
Replacing the last sound in a word to create a new word.
This manipulation skill demonstrates understanding that words are made of separate, changeable sounds.
Example: Changing the /t/ in "cat" to /n/ makes "can."
Fluency¶
The ability to read text smoothly, accurately, and with appropriate speed and expression.
Fluent reading sounds natural, like speaking. It requires automaticity with word recognition so attention can go to meaning and expression.
Example: A fluent reader reads "The cat sat on the mat" smoothly without stopping to sound out each word.
Formative Assessment¶
Ongoing evaluation during instruction to check student progress and guide teaching decisions.
Unlike tests given at the end of a unit, formative assessment happens continuously and helps teachers adjust their approach.
Example: A teacher notices a student struggles with /sh/ sounds and plans extra practice.
Gesture-Based Learning¶
Using hand movements and body motions to reinforce letter shapes, sounds, or concepts.
Physical movement helps cement learning in memory by engaging multiple senses and muscle memory.
Example: Tracing the letter S in the air while saying its sound.
High-Frequency Word¶
A word that appears very often in written text.
High-frequency words make up a large percentage of all text, so recognizing them quickly greatly improves reading fluency.
Example: Words like "the," "and," "is," and "it" appear on almost every page of children's books.
Independent Reading¶
Reading text without assistance from a teacher, parent, or other helper.
This is the ultimate goal of reading instruction: students who can pick up appropriate texts and read them on their own.
Example: A child chooses a simple book and reads it aloud without help.
Initial Sound¶
The first phoneme heard when a word is spoken aloud.
Initial sound recognition is usually the easiest phonemic awareness skill and is taught before medial and final sounds.
Example: The initial sound in "ball" is /b/.
Initial Sound Change¶
Replacing the first sound in a word to create a new word.
This manipulation skill shows students how changing one sound creates entirely different words.
Example: Changing the /c/ in "cat" to /b/ makes "bat."
Kinesthetic Learning¶
Learning through physical movement and touch rather than just seeing or hearing.
Kinesthetic approaches are especially helpful for young children who learn well through hands-on activities.
Example: Forming letters with clay or tracing them in sand.
Learning Games¶
Structured play activities designed to practice and reinforce reading skills.
Games make practice enjoyable and increase engagement, leading to more repetition and stronger learning.
Example: A matching game where students pair uppercase and lowercase letters.
Letter¶
A written symbol that represents one or more sounds in a language.
Letters are the basic building blocks of written language. The English alphabet has 26 letters.
Example: The letter B can represent the /b/ sound.
Letter Formation¶
The specific strokes and movements needed to write a letter correctly.
Proper formation helps with letter recognition and prepares students for fluent handwriting.
Example: The letter A is formed with two diagonal strokes meeting at the top and a horizontal stroke across the middle.
Letter Name¶
The spoken name used to identify a letter of the alphabet.
Letter names are different from letter sounds. The letter B is named "bee" but sounds like /b/.
Example: The letter name for S is "ess."
Letter Tracing¶
Following a printed letter shape with a finger or writing tool to learn its form.
Tracing builds muscle memory for letter shapes and connects visual recognition with motor skills.
Example: A student traces dotted-line letters to practice the shape of each letter.
Letter Writing¶
Producing letters independently on paper or other surfaces without tracing.
Writing letters reinforces recognition and prepares students for spelling and composition.
Example: A student writes their name from memory on a blank piece of paper.
Letter-Sound Link¶
The connection between a written letter and the sound it represents.
This concept is the core of phonics instruction. Understanding that letters stand for sounds unlocks the ability to read.
Example: Learning that the letter M makes the /m/ sound.
Listening Skills¶
The ability to pay attention to and process spoken language accurately.
Good listening is foundational for all oral language activities including phonemic awareness and following directions.
Example: A child listens carefully as a teacher says a word and identifies its beginning sound.
Long A Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "cake" and "rain," where the letter A says its own name.
Long vowel sounds are typically harder to learn because they require recognizing spelling patterns.
Example: The word "make" has the long A sound.
Long E Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "tree" and "meat," where the letter E says its own name.
Example: The word "see" has the long E sound.
Long I Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "bike" and "fly," where the letter I says its own name.
Example: The word "time" has the long I sound.
Long O Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "boat" and "snow," where the letter O says its own name.
Example: The word "go" has the long O sound.
Long U Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "cube" and "huge," where the letter U says its own name.
Example: The word "use" has the long U sound.
Long Vowel Sound¶
A vowel sound where the letter says its own alphabet name.
Long vowels are often created by spelling patterns like silent E or vowel teams, which are taught after short vowels.
Example: In "cake," the A says its name "ay" rather than the short /a/ sound.
Mastery¶
Complete and reliable understanding or performance of a skill without errors.
Mastery means a student can demonstrate the skill consistently, not just occasionally.
Example: A student who correctly identifies all 26 uppercase letters on multiple occasions has mastered uppercase letter recognition.
Medial Sound¶
The middle phoneme in a word, typically the vowel in CVC words.
Medial sounds are the hardest to isolate because they are surrounded by other sounds.
Example: The medial sound in "cat" is /a/.
Multisensory Learning¶
Teaching that engages multiple senses (seeing, hearing, touching, moving) simultaneously.
Using multiple senses creates stronger memory connections and helps diverse learners succeed.
Example: A student sees the letter B, hears its sound, traces it in sand, and says the sound aloud.
Nonsense Words¶
Made-up combinations of letters that follow English spelling patterns but have no meaning.
Nonsense words test true decoding ability because students cannot rely on memorization or picture clues.
Example: "Bim," "fop," and "teg" are nonsense words that can be sounded out.
One-to-One Correspondence¶
The concept that each written word represents exactly one spoken word.
This understanding is crucial for tracking text while reading. Students learn to point to each word as they say it.
Example: When reading "I see a cat," the student points to each of the four words while saying each one.
Onset and Rime¶
A way of dividing syllables where the onset is the beginning consonant(s) and the rime is the vowel and everything after it.
This division helps students recognize word patterns and read by analogy.
Example: In "cat," the onset is /c/ and the rime is "-at."
Oral Blending¶
Combining separately spoken sounds into a complete word using only speech, without written letters.
Oral blending develops the phonemic awareness needed before students can blend while reading.
Example: A teacher says "/c/ /a/ /t/" and the student responds "cat."
Pattern Recognition¶
The ability to notice and use recurring structures in words and language.
Recognizing patterns allows students to apply what they know to new words without starting from scratch.
Example: A student who knows "cat" can quickly read "bat," "sat," and "mat" by recognizing the pattern.
Personal Word List¶
A collection of words an individual student is learning or has mastered.
Personal lists track progress and provide meaningful practice with words relevant to each student.
Example: A student's list includes their name, family members' names, and favorite words.
Phoneme¶
The smallest unit of sound in spoken language that can change the meaning of a word.
Phonemes are sounds, not letters. Some phonemes are represented by multiple letters, and some letters represent multiple phonemes.
Example: The word "cat" has three phonemes: /c/, /a/, and /t/.
Phonemic Awareness¶
The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds in spoken words.
This auditory skill is essential for learning to read. Students must hear the sounds before they can connect them to letters.
Example: A student with phonemic awareness can tell that "cat" starts with the /c/ sound.
Practice¶
Repeated exercise of a skill to improve performance and move toward mastery.
Effective practice involves correct repetition with feedback. Practicing errors reinforces mistakes.
Example: A student practices letter sounds for five minutes each day using flashcards.
Print Awareness¶
Understanding that written text carries meaning and follows specific conventions.
Print awareness includes knowing that we read from left to right, top to bottom, and that print represents spoken words.
Example: A child points to the words in a book, showing they understand where the message is.
Print to Speech¶
Converting written text into spoken language through decoding.
This skill transforms marks on a page into meaningful words that can be heard and understood.
Example: A student looks at the word "dog" and says it aloud.
Progress Monitoring¶
Regularly tracking student growth in specific skills over time.
Monitoring helps teachers identify who needs extra support and whether instruction is effective.
Example: A teacher records weekly how many sight words each student recognizes.
Reading Accuracy¶
The correctness of word identification when reading text.
Accuracy is fundamental to comprehension. Misread words change the meaning of sentences.
Example: Reading "The cat sat on the mat" with no errors shows high accuracy.
Reading Confidence¶
A student's belief in their own ability to read successfully.
Confidence grows with success and appropriate challenge. It affects willingness to try new texts.
Example: A confident reader attempts unfamiliar words rather than skipping them.
Reading Direction¶
The path the eyes follow when reading text, which in English is left to right, top to bottom.
Understanding reading direction prevents confusion about where to start and how to proceed through text.
Example: A student moves their finger from left to right under each line as they read.
Reading for Meaning¶
Focusing on understanding the message of text, not just pronouncing the words correctly.
Reading for meaning is the ultimate purpose of reading. Decoding is a tool to access meaning.
Example: After reading a sentence about a dog, a student can tell you what the dog did.
Reading Motivation¶
A student's desire and willingness to engage in reading activities.
Motivated students practice more, which leads to greater skill development.
Example: A student chooses to look at books during free choice time.
Real vs Nonsense Words¶
The ability to distinguish actual English words from made-up combinations of letters.
This discrimination shows students are accessing meaning while decoding, not just making sounds.
Example: A student reads "cat" and "dat," then identifies that only "cat" is a real word.
Repetition¶
Doing the same activity multiple times to strengthen learning.
Repetition builds memory pathways in the brain and moves skills toward automaticity.
Example: A student practices writing the letter A ten times.
Rhyme Recognition¶
The ability to identify when two or more words have the same ending sound pattern.
Recognizing rhymes shows sensitivity to sound patterns, which supports later phonics learning.
Example: A student identifies that "cat," "hat," and "bat" all rhyme.
Rhyming Words¶
Words that share the same ending sound pattern.
Rhymes are often among the first sound patterns children notice in language, through songs and poems.
Example: "Dog" and "frog" are rhyming words because they both end with the /og/ sound.
Self-Correction¶
Recognizing and fixing one's own errors during reading without help from others.
Self-correction shows active monitoring of reading and willingness to achieve accuracy.
Example: A student reads "hose" for "house," pauses, and rereads it correctly.
Sentence¶
A group of words that expresses a complete thought, beginning with a capital letter and ending with punctuation.
Understanding sentences helps students grasp how text is organized and where ideas begin and end.
Example: "The dog runs." is a complete sentence.
Short A Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "cat" and "apple."
Short A is often the first vowel sound taught because it appears in many simple CVC words.
Example: The words "bat," "map," and "sad" all contain the short A sound.
Short E Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "bed" and "egg."
Example: The words "pet," "ten," and "red" all contain the short E sound.
Short I Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "sit" and "dig."
Example: The words "big," "pin," and "hit" all contain the short I sound.
Short O Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "hot" and "dog."
Example: The words "mop," "fog," and "cot" all contain the short O sound.
Short U Sound¶
The vowel sound heard in words like "cup" and "bug."
Example: The words "sun," "rug," and "bus" all contain the short U sound.
Short Vowel Sound¶
A vowel sound that does not say the letter's name, typically heard in simple CVC words.
Short vowel sounds are taught before long vowels because they are more consistent and appear in many early reading words.
Example: The /a/ in "cat" is a short vowel sound, unlike the /a/ in "cake."
Sight Word¶
A word that students learn to recognize instantly by sight, without needing to sound it out.
Many sight words do not follow regular phonics patterns, so they must be memorized as whole units.
Example: Words like "the," "said," and "was" are common sight words.
Simple Text Reading¶
Reading short, easy passages made up of known words and patterns.
Simple texts allow students to practice reading in context before tackling more complex material.
Example: A student reads a four-page book with one sentence per page using familiar sight words and CVC words.
Smooth Blending¶
Connecting sounds together without choppiness or hesitation to produce natural-sounding words.
Smooth blending is the goal of blending instruction. It allows words to sound like normal speech.
Example: Saying "cat" as one fluid word rather than "c...a...t" with pauses.
Sound Blending¶
The skill of combining individual phonemes to form a spoken word.
Blending is the synthesis side of phonemic awareness. It's the opposite of segmenting.
Example: Hearing the sounds /s/, /u/, /n/ and combining them to say "sun."
Sound Counting¶
Determining how many individual phonemes are in a spoken word.
This skill requires isolating each sound mentally, which is more challenging than it seems for complex words.
Example: Counting three sounds in "cat": /c/, /a/, /t/.
Sound Isolation¶
The ability to identify a single phoneme in a specific position within a word.
Students learn to isolate initial sounds first, then final sounds, then the harder medial sounds.
Example: Identifying that the first sound in "dog" is /d/.
Sound Manipulation¶
Changing sounds within words to create new words.
This advanced phonemic awareness skill shows deep understanding that words are made of changeable sound units.
Example: Changing the /a/ in "cat" to /o/ to make "cot."
Sound Segmentation¶
Breaking a spoken word apart into its individual phonemes.
Segmentation is essential for spelling and helps reinforce that words are constructed from separate sounds.
Example: Saying "dog" as three separate sounds: /d/, /o/, /g/.
Sound Stretching¶
Elongating continuous sounds within a word to help students hear each phoneme clearly.
This technique makes sounds easier to identify and blend, especially for students who struggle with fast speech.
Example: Saying "mmmaaannn" slowly to emphasize each sound in "man."
Sound-Symbol Match¶
The association between a spoken sound and the letter(s) that represent it in writing.
This bidirectional understanding allows students to both read and spell.
Example: Knowing that the /k/ sound is written with the letter C or K.
Sounding Out¶
Using letter-sound knowledge to pronounce an unfamiliar word by saying each sound in sequence.
This strategy gives students independence in tackling new words without having to ask for help.
Example: A student sees "pin" and says /p/.../ i/.../n/... "pin!"
Sounds in Environment¶
The ability to notice and distinguish various sounds occurring in the surrounding world.
Attention to environmental sounds prepares children for the finer discrimination needed for speech sounds.
Example: A child identifies the sounds of a bird, a car, and a door closing.
Speech Sounds¶
The sounds produced by the human voice to communicate through spoken language.
Speech sounds are the oral foundation of all language and literacy skills.
Example: The sounds we make when saying words like "mama" or "ball."
Spoken Language¶
Communication through spoken words and sentences.
Spoken language develops naturally through exposure and interaction, unlike reading which must be explicitly taught.
Example: A child asking "Can I have a snack?" is using spoken language.
Story Awareness¶
Understanding that text tells a narrative with characters, events, and a sequence.
Story awareness connects the mechanics of reading with the purpose of understanding content.
Example: A student knows that a book tells about something that happens and can retell the basic events.
Syllable¶
A unit of pronunciation containing one vowel sound, which may be spoken as a beat within a word.
Breaking words into syllables makes long words more manageable for reading and spelling.
Example: The word "apple" has two syllables: "ap" and "ple."
Syllable Clapping¶
Tapping or clapping once for each syllable in a word to identify how many syllables it contains.
This physical activity makes syllables concrete and observable for young learners.
Example: Clapping twice while saying "ta-ble."
VC Word Pattern¶
A two-sound word structure consisting of one vowel followed by one consonant.
VC patterns are simpler than CVC and often appear as word endings or in compound words.
Example: "At," "up," and "in" are VC words.
Vowel¶
One of the five letters (A, E, I, O, U) that represent open sounds where air flows freely through the mouth.
Every syllable in English contains at least one vowel sound. Vowels are the "heartbeat" of words.
Example: The letter A is a vowel.
Vowel Letter¶
Any of the five letters A, E, I, O, U that represent vowel sounds in English.
While there are five vowel letters, they represent many more than five vowel sounds.
Example: E is a vowel letter that can make the short sound /e/ as in "bed" or the long sound /ee/ as in "me."
Vowel Substitution¶
Changing the vowel in a word to create a different word.
This skill demonstrates control over the middle sound position, which is typically hardest to manipulate.
Example: Changing the /a/ in "bat" to /i/ to make "bit."
Vowel-Sound Match¶
The ability to connect a vowel letter with both its short and long sounds.
Vowels are more complex than consonants because each vowel letter represents multiple sounds.
Example: Knowing that the letter A can make the short /a/ sound in "cat" or the long /ay/ sound in "cake."
Word Bank¶
A collection of words a student can read or recognize.
As students' word banks grow, they can access more texts independently.
Example: A student's word bank includes 20 sight words and 15 CVC words they can read.
Word Boundaries¶
The spaces between written words that show where one word ends and another begins.
Understanding word boundaries helps students match spoken words to written words while reading.
Example: In the sentence "I see a cat," the spaces show there are four separate words.
Word Building¶
Constructing words by adding, removing, or changing letters and sounds.
Word building activities show how the alphabetic system works and reinforce spelling patterns.
Example: Starting with "at," adding "c" to make "cat," then changing "c" to "b" to make "bat."
Word Creation¶
The skill of forming new words by combining known sounds and letters.
This generative skill shows students they can produce words, not just read existing ones.
Example: A student combines /s/ + /u/ + /n/ to spell "sun."
Word Discrimination¶
The ability to distinguish between similar-sounding or similar-looking words.
This skill prevents confusion between words that share letters or sounds.
Example: Knowing that "bat" and "bet" are different words with different meanings.
Word Families¶
Groups of words that share the same ending pattern (rime).
Learning word families allows students to read many words by analogy once they know one word in the family.
Example: The "-at" family includes "cat," "bat," "sat," "hat," and "mat."
Word Family Building¶
Creating lists of words that share the same rime pattern.
This activity reinforces patterns and expands vocabulary efficiently.
Example: Starting with "-an" and generating "can," "man," "fan," "ran," and "pan."
Word Reading¶
The ability to look at a printed word and say it aloud correctly.
Word reading combines decoding skills with any memorized sight words to produce accurate oral reading.
Example: A student sees the word "dog" and says "dog."
Word Recognition Speed¶
How quickly a student can identify and say a printed word.
Faster recognition allows for smoother reading and better comprehension.
Example: A student who instantly says "the" when shown the word has fast word recognition speed.
Words¶
Units of spoken or written language that carry meaning and are separated by spaces in text.
Words are the building blocks of language. Each word represents a concept, action, or thing.
Example: "Cat," "run," and "happy" are all words.