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References for Sampling and Bias

Curated resources to deepen your understanding of sampling methods, sources of bias, and principles of good survey design.

Wikipedia Articles

  1. Sampling (statistics) - Wikipedia - Comprehensive overview of sampling theory including probability and non-probability methods, with clear explanations of when each approach is appropriate.

  2. Simple random sample - Wikipedia - Explains how every possible sample of size n has equal probability of selection, covering both sampling with and without replacement.

  3. Sampling bias - Wikipedia - Detailed coverage of systematic errors in sampling including undercoverage, nonresponse bias, and voluntary response bias, with historical examples like the 1936 Literary Digest poll.

Textbooks

  1. The Practice of Statistics by Daren S. Starnes, Josh Tabor, and Dan Yates - W.H. Freeman (2018) - AP-aligned coverage of sampling methods with step-by-step instructions for using random digit tables and identifying sources of bias in real surveys.

  2. Survey Methodology by Robert M. Groves et al. - Wiley (2009) - The definitive reference on survey design used by professional statisticians, covering everything from question wording to reducing nonresponse.

Online Resources

  1. Khan Academy: Sampling Methods - Khan Academy - Video explanations of simple random, stratified, cluster, and systematic sampling with practice problems that test your ability to identify sampling methods.

  2. Pew Research Center: Methods - Pew Research Center - Real-world examples of how professional pollsters design surveys, including detailed methodology reports that show good survey design in practice.

  3. STAT 200: Sampling and Survey Design - Penn State World Campus - Free online course materials explaining probability sampling methods and common sources of bias with interactive examples.

  4. CDC: Designing Questionnaires - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Practical guidance on writing survey questions that avoid leading language, double-barreled questions, and other common pitfalls.

  5. Against All Odds: Inside Statistics (Unit 8-10) - Annenberg Learner - Video episodes exploring sampling methods through real surveys and experiments, showing why random selection matters for valid conclusions.