Maps and Navigation¶

Summary¶

This chapter builds on the introduction to develop essential map reading and navigation skills. Students will learn about different types of maps, how to use latitude and longitude coordinates, and understand key reference lines like the Equator and Prime Meridian. These skills are fundamental for locating places and understanding spatial relationships throughout the rest of the textbook.

Concepts Covered¶

This chapter covers the following 18 concepts from the learning graph:

Political Maps
Physical Maps
Thematic Maps
Topographic Maps
Latitude
Longitude
Equator
Prime Meridian
Coordinates
Landforms
Rivers
Lakes
Weather vs Climate
Precipitation
Seasons
Regions Definition
Population
Natural Resources

Prerequisites¶

This chapter builds on concepts from:

Chapter 1: Introduction to Geography

Types of Maps¶

In Chapter 1, you learned that maps show us what places look like from above. But did you know there are many different kinds of maps? Each type of map tells a different story about a place!

Let's explore the four main types of maps you'll use as a geography explorer.

Political Maps¶

A political map shows the boundaries that people have created. These include:

Country borders
State borders
City locations
Capital cities (usually marked with a star ⭐)

Political maps often use different colors for each country or state. This makes it easy to see where one place ends and another begins. The colors don't mean anything special—they just help you tell places apart!

What Political Maps Show	What They DON'T Show
Country boundaries	Mountains
State boundaries	Rivers and lakes
Cities and capitals	Forests
Names of places	Elevation (how high land is)

Map Tip

When you want to find which state a city is in, use a political map!

Physical Maps¶

A physical map shows the natural features of the Earth—things that nature created, not people. Physical maps help you see:

Mountains and hills
Valleys and plains
Deserts
Rivers, lakes, and oceans
Forests

Physical maps use colors to show different features:

Color	What It Usually Means
Green	Low, flat land (plains)
Yellow/Tan	Higher land, plateaus
Brown	Mountains and highlands
White	Very high mountains (snow-capped)
Blue	Water (oceans, lakes, rivers)

The darker the brown, the higher the land. Snow-capped mountain peaks appear white!

Diagram: Political vs Physical Map Comparison¶

Political vs Physical Map Comparison MicroSim

Type: microsim

Learning Objective: Students will compare (L4) political and physical maps to understand what information each type provides.

Bloom Level: Analyze Bloom Verbs: compare, differentiate, distinguish

Visual Elements: - Side-by-side view of the same region (e.g., western United States) - Left panel: Political map with state borders, capitals, major cities - Right panel: Physical map showing Rocky Mountains, deserts, rivers - Toggle buttons to highlight specific features on each map

Interactive Controls: - "Show Borders" button highlights state lines on political map - "Show Mountains" button highlights elevation on physical map - "Show Cities" button highlights city dots on political map - "Show Rivers" button highlights waterways on physical map - Click any feature to see its name and description

Canvas Layout: - Width: responsive - Height: 400px - Two equal panels side by side - Control buttons below

Behavior: - Highlighting a feature on one map shows where it would be on the other - Helps students see that the same place looks different on different map types - Hovering shows tooltips with feature names

Instructional Rationale: Direct comparison helps students understand that maps are tools designed for specific purposes. Seeing the same region displayed two ways reinforces that different maps answer different questions.

Implementation: p5.js with layered map images and toggle controls

Thematic Maps¶

A thematic map focuses on one specific topic or theme. These maps help you see patterns across a region. Some examples include:

Population maps - Show where many or few people live
Weather maps - Show temperature, rain, or storms
Resource maps - Show where oil, coal, or minerals are found
Climate maps - Show climate zones
Election maps - Show how people voted

Thematic maps use colors, symbols, or shading to show their information. For example, a population map might use darker colors where more people live.

Thematic Map Examples

A rainfall map might show the Pacific Northwest in dark blue (lots of rain) and Arizona in tan (very dry)
A farm map might show the Midwest in green (lots of farmland) and Nevada in gray (little farming)

Topographic Maps¶

A topographic map shows the shape of the land using special lines called contour lines. Each line connects points that are at the same elevation (height above sea level).

Key features of topographic maps:

Contour lines show elevation
Lines close together = steep slope (like a cliff)
Lines far apart = gentle slope or flat land
Contour interval tells you the height difference between lines

Topographic maps are used by:

Hikers planning trails
Engineers building roads
Scientists studying the land

Diagram: Understanding Contour Lines¶

Understanding Contour Lines MicroSim

Type: microsim

Learning Objective: Students will interpret (L2) contour lines to understand how they represent 3D landforms on a 2D map.

Bloom Level: Understand Bloom Verbs: interpret, explain, translate

Visual Elements: - Left panel: 3D view of a simple hill/mountain - Right panel: Same hill shown as a topographic map with contour lines - Color-coded elevation bands matching between views - Labels showing elevation numbers on contour lines

Interactive Controls: - Rotation control to spin the 3D view - Slider to "slice" the mountain at different elevations - Toggle to show/hide contour lines on the 3D model - Hover over contour lines to see elevation values

Canvas Layout: - Width: responsive - Height: 400px - Split view: 3D model on left, topographic map on right

Behavior: - Moving the slice slider shows how each contour line represents one elevation level - Rotating the 3D view helps students connect the flat map to the real shape - Close contour lines clearly visible on steep slopes

Instructional Rationale: Connecting the abstract concept of contour lines to a tangible 3D model helps students understand how cartographers translate real terrain into map symbols.

Implementation: p5.js with WEBGL for 3D rendering

Latitude Lines¶

Imagine wrapping horizontal lines around the Earth like belts. These are latitude lines (also called parallels). Latitude measures how far north or south a place is from the Equator.

Important facts about latitude:

Latitude lines run east to west (horizontally)
They measure distance north or south
The Equator is 0° latitude
The North Pole is 90° North (90°N)
The South Pole is 90° South (90°S)

The United States is located between about 25°N and 49°N latitude (not counting Alaska and Hawaii).

Latitude	Location
90°N	North Pole
66.5°N	Arctic Circle
45°N	Halfway between Equator and North Pole
23.5°N	Tropic of Cancer
0°	Equator
23.5°S	Tropic of Capricorn
90°S	South Pole

Longitude Lines¶

Now imagine lines running from the North Pole to the South Pole, like the segments of an orange. These are longitude lines (also called meridians). Longitude measures how far east or west a place is from the Prime Meridian.

Important facts about longitude:

Longitude lines run north to south (vertically)
They measure distance east or west
The Prime Meridian is 0° longitude
Longitude goes from 0° to 180° East and 0° to 180° West

The United States is located between about 67°W and 125°W longitude (for the continental US).

Remembering the Difference

Latitude sounds like "latter" (rungs of a ladder go across) → horizontal lines
Longitude sounds like "long" → long lines from pole to pole

The Equator¶

The Equator is the most important latitude line. It's an imaginary line that circles the Earth exactly halfway between the North Pole and South Pole.

Facts about the Equator:

It divides Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres
It is 0° latitude
Places near the Equator are usually hot all year
The sun shines most directly on the Equator

Countries on or near the Equator include Ecuador (named after it!), Brazil, Kenya, and Indonesia.

The Prime Meridian¶

The Prime Meridian is the most important longitude line. It's an imaginary line that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole through Greenwich, England.

Facts about the Prime Meridian:

It divides Earth into Eastern and Western Hemispheres
It is 0° longitude
It was chosen in 1884 as the starting point for measuring longitude
The Royal Observatory in Greenwich marks where it passes

On the opposite side of Earth from the Prime Meridian is the International Date Line at 180° longitude. When you cross it, the calendar day changes!

Diagram: Latitude and Longitude Grid¶

Latitude and Longitude Interactive Grid

Type: microsim

Learning Objective: Students will locate (L3) places using latitude and longitude coordinates on an interactive globe.

Bloom Level: Apply Bloom Verbs: locate, use, demonstrate

Visual Elements: - Simple world map with latitude and longitude grid lines - Equator highlighted in red - Prime Meridian highlighted in blue - Latitude lines labeled (0°, 30°N, 60°N, 30°S, 60°S) - Longitude lines labeled (0°, 30°E, 60°E, 30°W, 60°W, etc.) - Movable crosshair or marker - Coordinate display showing current position

Interactive Controls: - Click anywhere on map to see coordinates - "Find Location" quiz mode: given coordinates, click the correct spot - "Name the Coordinates" mode: click a city, name its approximate coordinates - Toggle to show/hide major cities

Canvas Layout: - Width: responsive - Height: 450px - Map centered with coordinate display and mode buttons below

Default Parameters: - Mode: Explore - Grid lines: visible

Behavior: - Moving mouse shows coordinates in real-time - Clicking locks in a guess during quiz mode - Immediate feedback shows if answer is close enough - Cities can be used as reference points

Instructional Rationale: Hands-on practice with finding and naming coordinates builds the procedural skill needed to use atlases and digital maps effectively.

Implementation: p5.js with Mercator-style map projection

Using Coordinates¶

When you combine latitude and longitude, you get coordinates—an exact address for any place on Earth! Coordinates are written with latitude first, then longitude.

For example: - New York City: 40°N, 74°W - Los Angeles: 34°N, 118°W - The White House: 38°N, 77°W

Coordinates work like a grid on a game board. If someone says "row 5, column 3," you know exactly which square they mean. Latitude and longitude work the same way for our planet!

GPS and Coordinates

Your phone's GPS uses latitude and longitude to find your exact location! That's how map apps can give you directions.

What Are Landforms?¶

Landforms are natural features on Earth's surface. They are shaped by forces like water, wind, ice, and movements deep inside the Earth. You learned about landforms briefly in Chapter 1—now let's explore them more!

Major types of landforms include:

Landform	Description
Mountains	Very high land with steep sides and peaks
Hills	Raised land, lower and rounder than mountains
Plains	Large, flat areas of land
Plateaus	Flat, raised areas (like a table)
Valleys	Low areas between mountains or hills
Canyons	Deep valleys with steep sides, cut by rivers
Deserts	Very dry areas with little rainfall

Physical maps use colors and shading to show these landforms. In the next chapter, you'll learn about specific landforms in the United States!

Rivers¶

Rivers are natural streams of water that flow across the land toward an ocean, lake, or another river. Rivers have been important throughout history—people build cities near them for water, transportation, and farming.

Parts of a river:

Source - Where the river begins (often in mountains)
Mouth - Where the river ends (empties into ocean or lake)
Tributary - A smaller river that flows into a larger one
Delta - Land formed where a river meets the sea

Major US rivers include:

Mississippi River (the longest in the US)
Missouri River
Colorado River
Columbia River
Ohio River

Rivers are shown as blue lines on maps. Thicker lines usually mean bigger rivers.

Lakes¶

Lakes are bodies of water surrounded by land. Unlike rivers, lakes don't flow—the water stays in one place (though rivers may flow in and out of them).

Types of lakes:

Freshwater lakes - Most lakes, including the Great Lakes
Saltwater lakes - Like the Great Salt Lake in Utah
Glacial lakes - Formed by ancient glaciers (ice sheets)
Reservoirs - Human-made lakes created by dams

The Great Lakes are the largest group of freshwater lakes in the world:

Lake Superior (largest)
Lake Michigan
Lake Huron
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario

Lakes are shown as blue shapes on maps. Larger lakes are labeled with their names.

Diagram: Rivers and Lakes of the United States¶

US Rivers and Lakes Interactive Map

Type: microsim

Learning Objective: Students will identify (L1) major rivers and lakes of the United States and describe (L2) their locations.

Bloom Level: Remember, Understand Bloom Verbs: identify, locate, describe

Visual Elements: - Map of the United States - Major rivers shown as blue lines with varying thickness - Great Lakes and other major lakes as blue shapes - Labels appear on hover or click - Oceans and Gulf of Mexico shown in lighter blue

Interactive Controls: - Hover over water feature to see name - Click for more information (length, where it flows, states it passes through) - Toggle buttons: "Show Rivers" / "Show Lakes" / "Show Both" - Quiz mode: "Find the Mississippi River"

Canvas Layout: - Width: responsive - Height: 430px - Map with info panel on side or below

Behavior: - Highlighting a river shows its entire path - Clicking shows source, mouth, and major cities along it - Great Lakes can be individually highlighted - Quiz mode gives points for correct identifications

Instructional Rationale: Interactive exploration with immediate feedback helps students build a mental map of US water features. The quiz mode reinforces learning through retrieval practice.

Implementation: p5.js with SVG-style water feature paths

Weather vs. Climate (Review)¶

You learned about climate in Chapter 1. Let's review the difference between weather and climate:

Weather	Climate
What's happening RIGHT NOW	What USUALLY happens over many years
Changes daily or hourly	Stays mostly the same
"It's raining today"	"This place gets 40 inches of rain per year"
Short-term	Long-term (30+ years)

Understanding this difference helps us make sense of precipitation, seasons, and regional patterns!

Precipitation¶

Precipitation is any water that falls from the sky to the ground. This includes:

Rain - Liquid water droplets
Snow - Frozen ice crystals
Sleet - Rain that freezes before hitting the ground
Hail - Balls of ice formed in thunderstorms

Different parts of the United States get different amounts of precipitation:

Region	Precipitation Level
Pacific Northwest	Very high (lots of rain)
Southeast	High (rain and some hurricanes)
Midwest	Moderate
Southwest deserts	Very low (dry)
Great Plains	Low to moderate

Precipitation is measured in inches or centimeters. Weather maps use colors to show how much precipitation different areas receive.

Diagram: US Precipitation Map¶

US Precipitation Interactive Map

Type: microsim

Learning Objective: Students will analyze (L4) precipitation patterns across the United States and explain (L2) regional differences.

Bloom Level: Analyze Bloom Verbs: analyze, compare, explain

Visual Elements: - Map of United States colored by average annual precipitation - Color scale: tan/yellow (dry) → green → blue → dark blue (wet) - Legend showing precipitation amounts (0-10", 10-20", 20-40", 40-60", 60+") - Major cities marked for reference

Interactive Controls: - Hover over region to see exact precipitation amount - Click to compare two different regions - Toggle between "Annual Average" and "Monthly" views - Season selector to see how precipitation changes throughout year

Canvas Layout: - Width: responsive - Height: 400px - Map with color legend on side

Behavior: - Hovering shows precipitation data for that location - Comparison mode highlights two regions and shows side-by-side data - Monthly view shows animation of precipitation patterns across seasons

Instructional Rationale: Visualizing precipitation data on a map helps students see geographic patterns and understand why some regions are wet and others are dry.

Implementation: p5.js with choropleth-style coloring

Seasons¶

Seasons are periods of the year with different weather patterns. The United States has four seasons:

Spring (March-May) - Warming temperatures, flowers bloom, rain showers
Summer (June-August) - Hottest months, longest days, vacation time
Fall/Autumn (September-November) - Cooling temperatures, leaves change colors
Winter (December-February) - Coldest months, shortest days, snow in many places

Seasons happen because Earth is tilted on its axis. As Earth orbits the sun, different parts of the planet receive more direct sunlight at different times.

Seasons Are Different Around the World

When it's summer in the United States, it's winter in Australia! That's because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward it.

Not all parts of the US experience seasons the same way:

Northern states have big differences between seasons
Southern states have milder winters
Florida and Hawaii stay warm year-round
Alaska has very long summer days and very long winter nights

What Are Regions?¶

A region is an area that shares common characteristics. Regions help us organize and study geography by grouping similar places together.

There are different ways to define regions:

Region Type	Based On	Example
Physical regions	Landforms and nature	The Rocky Mountains region
Climate regions	Weather patterns	The Desert Southwest
Political regions	Government boundaries	The Midwest states
Cultural regions	People and traditions	The South
Economic regions	Business and industry	Silicon Valley (technology)

The United States is often divided into these main regions:

Northeast
Southeast
Midwest
Southwest
West

You'll learn much more about these regions in later chapters!

Population¶

Population is the number of people living in a place. Population can be measured for cities, states, countries, or even the whole world!

Important population terms:

Population size - Total number of people
Population density - How crowded a place is (people per square mile)
Urban - City areas with many people
Rural - Country areas with few people

Where do most Americans live?

Location	Population Density
Big cities (NYC, LA, Chicago)	Very high
Suburbs around cities	High
Small towns	Moderate
Rural/farm areas	Low
Mountain and desert regions	Very low

Population maps use darker colors to show areas where more people live. The East Coast and West Coast tend to be more crowded than the middle of the country.

Diagram: US Population Density Map¶

US Population Density Interactive Map

Type: microsim

Learning Objective: Students will analyze (L4) population density patterns and explain (L2) why some areas have more people than others.

Bloom Level: Analyze Bloom Verbs: analyze, explain, compare

Visual Elements: - Map of United States with county-level or state-level shading - Color scale: light (few people) → dark (many people) - Major cities marked with dots sized by population - Legend showing people per square mile

Interactive Controls: - Hover to see population data for each state/region - Toggle between "Total Population" and "Population Density" - Click major cities to see population and rank - "Why Here?" button explains geographic reasons for population clusters

Canvas Layout: - Width: responsive - Height: 400px - Map with legend and info panel

Behavior: - Hovering shows detailed population statistics - Clicking cities shows ranking and comparison to other cities - "Why Here?" reveals factors like water, jobs, climate, history

Instructional Rationale: Connecting population patterns to geographic factors (water, climate, resources) helps students understand that population distribution is not random but reflects human needs and opportunities.

Implementation: p5.js with choropleth coloring and city markers

Natural Resources¶

Natural resources are useful materials that come from nature. People use natural resources for energy, building, food, and many other purposes.

Types of natural resources:

Resource Type	Examples	Used For
Energy resources	Oil, coal, natural gas	Fuel, electricity
Minerals	Iron, copper, gold	Building, manufacturing
Water	Rivers, lakes, groundwater	Drinking, farming, power
Soil	Farmland	Growing food
Forests	Trees	Wood, paper, furniture
Wildlife	Fish, animals	Food, materials

Different regions of the US have different natural resources:

Texas and Alaska - Oil and natural gas
Appalachian region - Coal
Great Lakes region - Iron ore
Great Plains - Rich farmland
Pacific Northwest - Timber (forests)
Gulf Coast and Atlantic - Fishing

Renewable vs. Non-Renewable

Renewable resources can be replaced (trees, fish, water)
Non-renewable resources cannot be replaced once used (oil, coal, minerals)

Maps showing natural resources help people understand what products come from different regions and why certain industries developed in specific places.

Key Takeaways¶

Great job completing Chapter 2! Here's what you've learned:

Political maps show borders, states, and cities
Physical maps show mountains, rivers, and natural features
Thematic maps focus on one topic (population, weather, resources)
Topographic maps use contour lines to show elevation
Latitude measures north/south from the Equator
Longitude measures east/west from the Prime Meridian
Coordinates combine latitude and longitude to locate any place
Landforms are natural features like mountains, plains, and valleys
Rivers flow toward oceans or lakes; lakes are surrounded by land
Precipitation is water falling from the sky (rain, snow, sleet, hail)
Seasons create different weather patterns throughout the year
Regions are areas that share common characteristics
Population is the number of people in a place
Natural resources are useful materials from nature

You now have the map skills to explore the physical features, states, and regions of the United States!

Review Questions¶

What is the difference between a political map and a physical map?

A political map shows boundaries, states, countries, and cities—things created by people. A physical map shows natural features like mountains, rivers, and plains—things created by nature.

What do latitude lines measure?

Latitude lines measure how far north or south a place is from the Equator. They run horizontally (east to west) around the Earth.

What is the Prime Meridian?

The Prime Meridian is the 0° longitude line that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole through Greenwich, England. It divides the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

Name three types of precipitation.

Rain, snow, sleet, and hail are all types of precipitation. (Any three of these is correct!)

What is population density?

Population density is how crowded a place is—the number of people living in a certain amount of space (usually measured in people per square mile).

Give an example of a renewable and non-renewable natural resource.

Renewable: Trees, fish, water, soil Non-renewable: Oil, coal, natural gas, iron, copper, gold (Any correct example from each category works!)