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References: Population Genetics and Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

  1. Hardy–Weinberg principle - Wikipedia - Derivation of the p² + 2pq + q² = 1 model, its five assumptions, and its use as a null hypothesis for detecting evolution in a population.

  2. Genetic drift - Wikipedia - Explains random allele frequency change in small populations, including the founder effect and bottleneck effect covered in this chapter.

  3. Natural selection - Wikipedia - Overview of stabilizing, directional, and disruptive selection, with the population-level logic that distinguishes selection from drift.

  4. Evolutionary Analysis (5th ed.) - Scott Freeman, Jon C. Herron - Pearson - Freeman and Herron pioneered the explicit "state the hypothesis, predict, test" narrative structure for teaching Hardy-Weinberg as a null-hypothesis model to be falsified with data, rather than a formula to memorize and plug numbers into.

  5. Principles of Population Genetics (4th ed.) - Daniel L. Hartl, Andrew G. Clark - Sinauer - Hartl is credited with popularizing the worked-numerical-example pedagogy of plugging real allele-count data directly into the p and q equations, now the standard method for teaching Hardy-Weinberg calculations in introductory courses.

  6. AP Biology: Natural Selection - Khan Academy - Free video lessons and practice problems on population genetics, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, and evolutionary forces aligned to the AP Biology course framework.

  7. Understanding Evolution - UC Museum of Paleontology, UC Berkeley - Teaching resource covering genetic drift, gene flow, and the mechanisms that shift allele frequencies in populations.

  8. HHMI BioInteractive - Howard Hughes Medical Institute - Short films and interactive modules on population genetics, including data-based activities on allele frequency change.

  9. Biology 2e - OpenStax - Free college biology textbook chapter on population genetics with additional worked Hardy-Weinberg problems.

  10. 7.013 Introductory Biology - MIT OpenCourseWare - College-level lecture notes covering population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis.