AP Psychology Concept List from the College Board¶

Source: AP Psychology Course and Exam Description (CED), Effective Fall 2024
Publisher: College Board
URL: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-psychology

Course Overview¶

AP Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The 2024 revised curriculum is organized into 5 units based on the American Psychological Association's (APA) recommended core content domains ("pillars") for introductory psychology. Each unit carries equal exam weighting of 15–25%.

Units: 1. Biological Bases of Behavior 2. Cognition 3. Development and Learning 4. Social Psychology and Personality 5. Mental and Physical Health

Science Practices (Skills): - Concept Application (1.A, 1.B) - Research Methods and Design (2.A–2.D) - Data Interpretation (3.A–3.C) - Argumentation (4.A–4.B)

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior (15–25%)¶

Topic 1.1 – Interaction of Heredity and Environment¶

Nature vs. nurture
Heredity (genetic/predisposed characteristics)
Environmental factors (family interactions, education)
Evolutionary perspective
Natural selection
Eugenics (discriminatory misapplication of evolutionary theory)
Twin studies
Family studies
Adoption studies

Topic 1.2 – Overview of the Nervous System¶

Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
Somatic nervous system

Topic 1.3 – The Neuron and Neural Firing¶

Neurons (neural cells that transmit information)
Glial cells (structure, insulation, communication, waste transport)
Sensory neurons
Motor neurons
Interneurons
Reflex arc
All-or-none principle
Depolarization
Refractory period
Resting potential
Reuptake
Threshold
Multiple sclerosis
Myasthenia gravis
Neurotransmitters (scope limited to):
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Glutamate
GABA
Endorphins
Substance P
Acetylcholine
Excitatory messages
Inhibitory messages
Hormones (scope limited to):
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Leptin
Ghrelin
Melatonin
Oxytocin
Pituitary gland
Psychoactive drugs
Agonists
Antagonists
Reuptake inhibitors
Drug categories:
Stimulants (e.g., caffeine, cocaine)
Depressants (e.g., alcohol)
Hallucinogens (e.g., marijuana)
Opioids (e.g., heroin)
Tolerance
Addiction
Withdrawal

Topic 1.4 – The Brain¶

Brain stem (medulla) – breathing, heart rate
Reticular activating system – alertness, voluntary movement, eye movement
Brain's reward center
Cerebellum – coordination, balance, procedural learning
Cerebral cortex
Two hemispheres
Limbic system:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Corpus callosum
Lobes of the cortex:
Occipital lobes (visual processing)
Temporal lobes (auditory and linguistic processing)
Parietal lobes (sensory integration, spatial processing)
Frontal lobes (higher cognitive functions, motor cortex)
Brain research methods: case studies, correlational research, naturalistic observation, experimental research

Topic 1.5 – Sleep¶

Sleep stages
REM sleep
Non-REM sleep
Sleep deprivation effects
Circadian rhythms
Sleep disorders (insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea)
Dreams and their functions
Cultural and cognitive biases affecting sleep research

Topic 1.6 – Sensation¶

Sensation vs. perception
Absolute threshold
Difference threshold (just noticeable difference / Weber's law)
Signal detection theory
Sensory adaptation
Vision: transduction, rods, cones, blind spot, optic nerve
Hearing (audition): cochlea, hair cells, pitch perception
Other senses: olfaction, gustation, somatosensation (touch, pain, temperature), vestibular sense, kinesthesia
Gate-control theory of pain

Unit 2: Cognition (15–25%)¶

Topic 2.1 – Perception¶

Bottom-up processing
Top-down processing
Schemas
Perceptual sets
Context, experience, and cultural influences on perception
Gestalt principles: closure, figure and ground, proximity, similarity
Attention
Cocktail party effect (selective attention)
Change blindness (inattentional blindness)
Binocular depth cues:
Retinal disparity
Convergence
Monocular depth cues:
Relative clarity
Relative size
Texture gradient
Linear perspective
Interposition
Visual perceptual constancies (size, shape, color constancy)
Apparent movement

Topic 2.2 – Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making¶

Concepts
Prototypes
Schemas
Assimilation
Accommodation
Algorithms
Heuristics
Representativeness heuristic
Availability heuristic
Mental set
Priming
Framing
Gambler's fallacy
Sunk-cost fallacy
Executive functions
Critical thinking
Creativity
Divergent thinking
Convergent thinking
Functional fixedness

Topic 2.3 – Introduction to Memory¶

Explicit memory (declarative memory)
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Implicit memory
Procedural memory
Prospective memory
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Working memory model:
Central executive
Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Multi-store model:
Sensory memory (iconic, echoic)
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Automatic processing
Effortful processing
Levels of processing model:
Structural (shallow)
Phonemic
Semantic (deepest)

Topic 2.4 – Encoding Memories¶

Encoding strategies
Mnemonic devices
Method of loci
Chunking
Spacing effect
Massed practice vs. distributed (spaced) practice
Serial position effect
Primacy effect
Recency effect

Topic 2.5 – Storing Memories¶

Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Working memory
Long-term memory
Storage duration and capacity differences
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
Highly superior autobiographical memory
Autobiographical memory
Self-reference effect
Storage impairments:
Amnesia (retrograde and anterograde)
Alzheimer's disease
Infantile amnesia

Topic 2.6 – Retrieving Memories¶

Recall
Recognition
Retrieval cues
Context-dependent memory
Mood-congruent memory
State-dependent memory
Testing effect
Metacognition
Retrieval practice

Topic 2.7 – Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges¶

Forgetting curve (Ebbinghaus)
Encoding failure
Interference:
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Repression (psychodynamic perspective)
Misinformation effect
Source amnesia
Constructive memory
Memory consolidation
Imagination inflation

Topic 2.8 – Intelligence and Achievement¶

Defining and measuring intelligence
General intelligence (g factor)
Multiple intelligences debate
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Mental age vs. chronological age
Psychometric principles:
Standardization
Validity (construct validity, predictive validity)
Reliability (test-retest reliability, split-half reliability)
Stereotype threat
Stereotype lift
Flynn Effect
Sociocultural factors in intelligence scores
Achievement tests
Aptitude tests
Fixed mindset vs. growth mindset

Unit 3: Development and Learning (15–25%)¶

Topic 3.1 – Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology¶

Developmental psychology
Stability vs. change
Nature vs. nurture (revisited in development)
Continuous vs. discontinuous development (stage theories)
Cross-sectional research design
Longitudinal research design

Topic 3.2 – Physical Development Across the Lifespan¶

Prenatal development:
Teratogens
Maternal illness effects
Genetic mutations
Hormonal and environmental factors
Infancy and childhood:
Fine motor coordination
Gross motor coordination
Physical developmental milestones
Adolescence:
Puberty
Brain development (prefrontal cortex maturation)
Adulthood and aging:
Menopause
Sensory and physical decline
Sleep pattern changes

Topic 3.3 – Gender and Sexual Orientation¶

Biological sex
Gender identity
Gender roles and stereotypes
Sexual orientation
Research methodologies related to gender and sexual orientation
Ethical considerations in gender research

Topic 3.4 – Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan¶

Piaget's stages of cognitive development:
Sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
Concrete operational stage
Formal operational stage
Object permanence
Conservation
Egocentrism
Theory of mind
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
Cognitive development in adulthood:
Fluid intelligence
Crystallized intelligence
Cognitive decline

Topic 3.5 – Communication and Language Development¶

Language acquisition
Babbling
One-word stage (holophrases)
Two-word stage
Telegraphic speech
Overextension
Underextension
Critical period for language
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) – Chomsky
Linguistic relativity (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis)
Cultural influences on language development

Attachment (Harlow, Ainsworth, Bowlby):
Secure attachment
Insecure attachment (avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, disorganized)
Temperament
Parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved)
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development (8 stages):
Trust vs. mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Initiative vs. guilt
Industry vs. inferiority
Identity vs. role confusion
Intimacy vs. isolation
Generativity vs. stagnation
Integrity vs. despair
Identity development in adolescence
Social clock
Kohlberg's stages of moral development:
Preconventional
Conventional
Postconventional
Gilligan's ethics of care critique
Kübler-Ross stages of grief:
Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

Topic 3.7 – Classical Conditioning¶

Learning (relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience)
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Higher-order conditioning
Conditioned emotional responses (Watson & Little Albert)
Taste aversion (Garcia effect)

Topic 3.8 – Operant Conditioning¶

Operant conditioning (Thorndike, Skinner)
Law of effect (Thorndike)
Reinforcement (increases behavior)
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment (decreases behavior)
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
Primary reinforcers
Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers
Schedules of reinforcement:
Fixed ratio (FR)
Variable ratio (VR)
Fixed interval (FI)
Variable interval (VI)
Shaping
Chaining
Continuous reinforcement
Partial reinforcement
Partial reinforcement extinction effect
Learned helplessness

Social learning theory (Bandura)
Observational learning (modeling)
Bobo doll experiment
Vicarious reinforcement and punishment
Self-efficacy (in the context of learning)
Cognitive maps (Tolman)
Latent learning
Insight learning (Köhler)
Neurological basis of learning
Mirror neurons
Neuroplasticity
Artificial intelligence models of learning

Topic 4.1 – Attribution Theory and Person Perception¶

Attribution theory
Dispositional attributions (internal)
Situational attributions (external)
Explanatory style (optimistic vs. pessimistic)
Actor/observer bias
Fundamental attribution error
Self-serving bias
Locus of control (internal vs. external)
Mere exposure effect
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Social comparison (upward and downward)
Relative deprivation

Topic 4.2 – Attitude Formation and Attitude Change¶

Stereotypes
Implicit attitudes
Prejudice
Discrimination
Just-world phenomenon
Out-group homogeneity bias
In-group bias
Ethnocentrism
Belief perseverance
Confirmation bias
Cognitive dissonance

Social norms
Social influence theory (normative vs. informational)
Persuasion
Elaboration likelihood model (central route vs. peripheral route)
Halo effect
Foot-in-the-door technique
Door-in-the-face technique
Conformity (Asch experiments)
Obedience (Milgram experiments)
Individualism vs. collectivism
Multiculturalism
Group polarization
Groupthink
Diffusion of responsibility
Social loafing
Deindividuation
Social facilitation
False consensus effect
Superordinate goals
Social traps
Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
Burnout
Altruism
Social reciprocity norm
Social responsibility norm
Bystander effect
Kitty Genovese case (historical context)

Topic 4.4 – Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality¶

Psychodynamic theory of personality (Freud)
Unconscious processes
Id, ego, superego
Ego defense mechanisms:
Denial
Displacement
Projection
Rationalization
Reaction formation
Regression
Repression
Sublimation
Projective tests (Rorschach, TAT)
Humanistic theory of personality (Rogers, Maslow)
Unconditional positive regard
Self-actualization
Self-concept

Social-cognitive theory of personality (Bandura)
Reciprocal determinism
Self-concept
Self-efficacy
Self-esteem
Trait theories of personality
Big Five (OCEAN) personality traits:
Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism (emotional stability)
Personality inventories
Factor analysis

Topic 4.6 – Motivation¶

Drive-reduction theory
Homeostasis
Arousal theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Self-determination theory
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Incentive theory
Instincts (in non-human animals)
Lewin's motivational conflicts theory:
Approach-approach conflict
Approach-avoidance conflict
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Sensation-seeking theory:
Experience seeking
Thrill/adventure seeking
Disinhibition
Boredom susceptibility
Hunger and eating:
Ghrelin (hunger hormone)
Leptin (satiety hormone)
Hypothalamus regulation
External factors in eating (food presence, time of day, social meals)
Belongingness motivation

Topic 4.7 – Emotion¶

Emotion (affect) as a complex psychological process
Physiological experience of emotion
Cognitive appraisal of emotion
Early theories of emotion (physiological-then-cognitive vs. simultaneous)
Cognitive labeling of emotion
Facial-feedback hypothesis
Broaden-and-build theory of emotion (Fredrickson)
Universality of basic emotions (anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, fear)
Display rules for emotional expression
Elicitors of emotion
Cultural differences in emotional expression
Gender, age, and socioeconomic influences on emotional expression

Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health (15–25%)¶

Topic 5.1 – Introduction to Health Psychology¶

Health psychology
Stress
Eustress (motivating stress) vs. distress (debilitating stress)
Daily hassles
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)
Stressors as traumatic events
Hypertension (linked to stress)
Headaches (linked to stress)
Immune suppression (linked to stress)
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Selye:
Alarm reaction (fight-flight-freeze response)
Resistance phase
Exhaustion phase
Tend-and-befriend response
Coping strategies:
Problem-focused coping
Emotion-focused coping (deep breathing, meditation, medication)

Topic 5.2 – Positive Psychology¶

Positive psychology
Well-being
Resilience
Positive emotions
Gratitude and subjective well-being
Signature strengths and virtues
Six categories of virtues (VIA Classification):
Wisdom
Courage
Humanity
Justice
Temperance
Transcendence
Posttraumatic growth

Topic 5.3 – Explaining and Classifying Psychological Disorders¶

Psychological disorders defined by:
Dysfunction
Distress
Deviation from social norms
DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) – APA
ICD (International Classification of Mental Disorders) – WHO
Stigma, racism, sexism, ageism in diagnosis
Eclectic approach to diagnosis and treatment
Perspectives on psychological disorders:
Behavioral perspective (maladaptive learned associations)
Psychodynamic perspective (unconscious thoughts, childhood)
Humanistic perspective (lack of social support, unmet potential)
Cognitive perspective (maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, attitudes)
Evolutionary perspective (behaviors reducing survival likelihood)
Sociocultural perspective (maladaptive social/cultural dynamics)
Biological perspective (physiological or genetic issues)
Biopsychosocial model
Diathesis-stress model

Topic 5.4 – Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders¶

Neurodevelopmental Disorders¶

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Environmental, physiological, and genetic causes

Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders¶

Schizophrenia (acute vs. chronic)
Positive symptoms:
Delusions (persecution, grandeur)
Hallucinations (auditory, visual, etc.)
Disorganized thinking/speech (word salad)
Disorganized motor behavior / catatonic excitement
Negative symptoms:
Flat affect
Catatonic stupor
Dopamine hypothesis
Prenatal virus exposure as possible cause

Depressive Disorders¶

Major depressive disorder
Persistent depressive disorder
Biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, and cognitive causes

Bipolar Disorders¶

Bipolar I disorder
Bipolar II disorder
Mania
Bipolar cycling (alternating periods of mania and depression)

Anxiety Disorders¶

Specific phobia (acrophobia, arachnophobia, etc.)
Agoraphobia
Panic disorder
Panic attacks
Ataque de nervios (culture-bound panic disorder)
Social anxiety disorder
Taijin kyofusho (culture-bound social anxiety)
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
Causes: learned associations, maladaptive thinking, biological/genetic factors

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Obsessions (intrusive thoughts)
Compulsions (intrusive, repetitive behaviors)
Hoarding disorder
OCD vs. obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (distinct)

Dissociative Disorders¶

Dissociative amnesia (with and without fugue)
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
Trauma and stress as possible causes

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Hypervigilance
Flashbacks
Insomnia
Emotional detachment
Hostility
Trauma/stress as cause

Feeding and Eating Disorders¶

Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, and cognitive causes

Personality Disorders¶

Cluster A (odd/eccentric):
Paranoid personality disorder
Schizoid personality disorder
Schizotypal personality disorder
Cluster B (dramatic/emotional/erratic):
Antisocial personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder
Borderline personality disorder
Cluster C (anxious/fearful):
Avoidant personality disorder
Dependent personality disorder
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Topic 5.5 – Treatment of Psychological Disorders¶

Psychotherapy effectiveness (meta-analytic research)
Evidence-based interventions
Cultural humility in therapy
Therapeutic alliance
Deinstitutionalization (late 20th century)
Decentralized treatment
Combination of medication and psychological therapies
APA ethical principles for clinicians:
Nonmaleficence
Fidelity
Integrity
Respect for rights and dignity

Psychological Therapies¶

Psychodynamic therapies:
Free association
Dream interpretation
Cognitive therapies:
Cognitive restructuring
Fear hierarchies
Cognitive triad (negative thoughts about self, world, future)
Applied behavior analysis (ABA):
Exposure therapies
Systematic desensitization
Aversion therapy
Token economies
Biofeedback
Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT):
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
Humanistic (person-centered) therapy:
Active listening
Unconditional positive regard
Group therapy
Hypnosis (effective for pain and anxiety; not for memory retrieval)

Biological Interventions¶

Psychoactive medications:
Antidepressants
Antianxiety drugs
Lithium (for bipolar disorders)
Antipsychotic medications
Tardive dyskinesia (side effect of dopamine regulation)
Surgical/invasive interventions:
Psychosurgery (lesioning)
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Lobotomy (historical – rarely used today)

Research Methods (Cross-Cutting Science Practice)¶

These research concepts appear across all units as a foundational science practice:

Scientific method in psychology
Experimental research design
Independent variable (IV)
Dependent variable (DV)
Control group
Experimental group
Random assignment
Confounding variables
Operational definitions
Non-experimental methodologies:
Case studies
Correlational research (positive, negative, zero correlation)
Naturalistic observation
Surveys
Longitudinal research
Cross-sectional research
Sampling methods (random, stratified, convenience)
Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
Measures of variation (range, standard deviation)
Percentile rank
Statistical significance
Inferential statistics
Generalizability
Replicability
Peer review
Ethical guidelines in psychological research:
Informed consent
Debriefing
Confidentiality
Protection from harm
APA Ethics Code
IRB oversight

Key Historical Figures and Studies (Referenced Throughout CED)¶

Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning (dogs, salivation)
B.F. Skinner – operant conditioning, Skinner box
Edward Thorndike – law of effect
John Watson – behaviorism, Little Albert experiment
Albert Bandura – social learning theory, Bobo doll study, reciprocal determinism
Edward Tolman – cognitive maps, latent learning
Wolfgang Köhler – insight learning (Sultan the chimp)
Harry Harlow – attachment (rhesus monkey wire/cloth mother studies)
Mary Ainsworth – Strange Situation, attachment styles
John Bowlby – attachment theory
Jean Piaget – cognitive development stages
Lev Vygotsky – zone of proximal development, scaffolding
Erik Erikson – psychosocial stages of development
Lawrence Kohlberg – moral development stages
Carol Gilligan – ethics of care, critique of Kohlberg
Sigmund Freud – psychodynamic theory, defense mechanisms
Carl Rogers – humanistic theory, unconditional positive regard
Abraham Maslow – self-actualization, hierarchy of needs (concept referenced)
Stanley Milgram – obedience experiments
Solomon Asch – conformity experiments
Hans Selye – General Adaptation Syndrome
Elizabeth Loftus – misinformation effect, eyewitness memory
Charles Spearman – g factor of intelligence
Howard Gardner – multiple intelligences (theory referenced in debate)
Martin Seligman – learned helplessness, positive psychology
Barbara Fredrickson – broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions
Philip Zimbardo – Stanford Prison Experiment (referenced for situational factors)
Muzafer Sherif – Robbers Cave experiment (referenced for superordinate goals)
Roger Sperry – split-brain research

Source: College Board AP Psychology Course and Exam Description (CED), Effective Fall 2024. Retrieved from apcentral.collegeboard.org.